Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is a tropical fruit native to Southeast Asia whose rind is rich in xanthones — a class of polyphenolic compounds with potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in laboratory studies. While traditionally used in Southeast Asian folk medicine for diarrhea, skin infections, and wound healing, human clinical evidence for mangosteen supplements remains extremely limited.
Over 50 distinct xanthone structures have been identified in the mangosteen pericarp, with alpha-mangostin and gamma-mangostin being the most studied. Despite consistently impressive preclinical findings across anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory research, almost no well-designed clinical trials have confirmed therapeutic benefits for any condition in humans. This article synthesizes all available evidence — from traditional use to the latest 2025 systematic reviews.
Table of Contents
- Overview
- Forms and Bioavailability
- Evidence for Benefits
- Recommended Dosing
- Safety and Side Effects
- Drug Interactions
- Dietary Sources
- References
Overview
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is a tropical evergreen tree in the Clusiaceae family, native to the rainforests of Southeast Asia — specifically the Sunda Islands and Moluccas of Malaysia and Indonesia [1][2]. The fruit, often called the "Queen of Fruits," features a thick, leathery, reddish-purple rind (pericarp) that exudes yellow latex when cut, enclosing 4-8 segments of soft, white, juicy aril with a sweet-tangy flavor blending notes of citrus, peach, and lychee [1][3][4]. Despite the similarity in name, mangosteen is entirely unrelated to the mango.
The tree grows slowly, reaching heights of 6-25 meters under optimal conditions, and requires a strictly tropical climate with temperatures between 25-30°C, annual rainfall of 1,500-2,500 mm, and high humidity exceeding 80% [3][5]. The fruit takes 100-120 days from flowering to maturity, and mature trees yield 200-1,000 fruits annually [4][6]. Trees are propagated primarily through seeds, which are recalcitrant (losing viability within 1-5 days of extraction), though grafting and tissue culture methods have been developed to improve propagation efficiency [5][7].
Thailand is the world's top producer and exporter, with approximately 273,000 metric tons in 2023 from over 70,900 hectares, followed by Indonesia (320,000 metric tons), the Philippines (66,000 metric tons), Vietnam (37,000 metric tons), and Malaysia (22,000-30,000 metric tons) [8]. The global mangosteen market was valued at approximately US$338 million in 2023, with fresh fruit accounting for about 70% of trade volume and processed forms (juice, powder, supplements) projected to grow at roughly 5% annually through 2030 [8][9].
What makes mangosteen of particular scientific interest is not the edible aril but the rind (pericarp). The pericarp is rich in a class of polyphenolic compounds called xanthones — oxygenated derivatives of xanthene — with over 50 distinct structures identified to date [10][11]. The two most studied are alpha-mangostin (α-mangostin), which typically constitutes 1.5-2.5% of the dry rind weight, and gamma-mangostin (γ-mangostin), present at approximately 0.3-0.8% [12][13]. Other notable xanthones include β-mangostin, gartanin, 8-desoxygartanin, and garcinone D [12][13]. These prenylated xanthones have demonstrated a wide range of biological activities in laboratory studies, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anticancer effects [10][14][15].
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Forms and Bioavailability
Commercial Forms
Mangosteen supplements and products are available in several forms, each with distinct characteristics:
| Form | Description | Typical Xanthone Content | Key Considerations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fresh fruit (aril) | Edible white flesh consumed as food | Minimal (<0.1% dry weight) | Provides sugars, fiber, vitamin C; negligible xanthone exposure |
| Mangosteen juice | Blended whole fruit (rind + aril) or aril-only juice | Variable, depends on rind proportion | High sugar (140-170 kcal/cup); xanthone content inconsistent [16] |
| Pericarp extract (capsules/tablets) | Dried, powdered, or standardized rind extract | Often standardized to total xanthones or α-mangostin | Most concentrated form; standardization varies between manufacturers |
| Pericarp powder | Ground dried rind | 10-15% total xanthones in optimized extracts [18] | Bulk powder allows flexible dosing but standardization less consistent |
| Topical preparations | Creams, gels, hydrogel patches with mangosteen extract | 0.5-2% extract typical in studies [19][20] | Bypasses oral bioavailability limitations |
| Mangosteen tea | Dried rind steeped in hot water | Low extraction efficiency | Traditional preparation; limited xanthone delivery [21] |
Xanthone Distribution Across Plant Parts
The bioactive xanthone content varies dramatically across different parts of the mangosteen plant [12][13][22]:
- Pericarp (rind): Highest concentration by far. Contains the majority of α-mangostin (1.5-2.5% dry weight), γ-mangostin (0.3-0.8%), β-mangostin, gartanin, and 8-desoxygartanin. The purple rind contains roughly twice the xanthone concentration of the aril. Accounts for 50-60% of total fruit weight [4][12].
- Edible aril: Trace xanthone levels (often <0.1% dry weight). Contains primarily flavonoids like epicatechin and procyanidins rather than xanthones [13].
- Bark and stem bark: Source of condensed tannins contributing to astringency. Also contains benzophenones (mangostanones) [12][13].
- Leaves: Lower xanthone content than pericarp. Used in traditional decoctions and investigated as fodder additives for animal nutrition [23].
- Seeds: Primarily investigated for biodiesel potential (approximately 21% oil yield) rather than xanthone content [24].
This distribution means that consuming fresh mangosteen fruit (the aril) provides minimal xanthone exposure. Supplement products targeting xanthone content therefore focus on pericarp-derived extracts.
Bioavailability Considerations
Xanthones from mangosteen face significant bioavailability challenges that are critical for understanding the gap between in vitro potency and potential in vivo efficacy:
Extraction and stability: Optimal extraction from the rind yields approximately 10-15% total xanthones by weight using solvent extraction with ethanol or acetone [18]. These compounds are heat-sensitive, with degradation observed starting at approximately 60°C, particularly during drying or processing, leading to measurable losses in α-mangostin content [18][25].
Oral absorption: Like many polyphenolic compounds, xanthones from mangosteen have limited oral bioavailability due to poor aqueous solubility, extensive first-pass metabolism, and rapid phase II conjugation (glucuronidation and sulfation) in the liver and intestine. Pharmacokinetic studies in rats demonstrated low systemic bioavailability of α-mangostin following oral dosing, with extensive metabolism to conjugated metabolites [26]. A small human study with mangosteen juice detected α-mangostin and its phase II metabolites in plasma, confirming at least partial absorption [11].
Structural features: The prenylated xanthone structures — characterized by isoprenoid (prenyl) side chains — enhance lipophilicity compared to simple polyphenols. This increased lipophilicity may facilitate membrane partitioning and cellular uptake but does not overcome the fundamental limitations of poor aqueous solubility in the gastrointestinal tract and extensive hepatic metabolism [12][26].
Nano-encapsulation advances: To address bioavailability limitations, a 2023 study demonstrated that chitosan-oleic acid nano-complexes for α-mangostin encapsulation achieved over 90% encapsulation efficiency and extended storage stability to the equivalent of one year at room temperature, compared to rapid degradation of the free form [27]. These technological advances may improve supplement shelf life, though human pharmacokinetic validation of improved oral bioavailability from nano-formulations has not yet been published.
Biosynthetic pathway: Mangosteen xanthones are produced through the acetate-malonate (polyketide) pathway characteristic of Clusiaceae species, involving polyketide synthase-mediated chain elongation followed by cyclization and prenylation [18][25][28]. This biosynthetic origin distinguishes them from flavonoids and other common plant polyphenols.
Analytical Methods and Quality Control
Quantitative analysis of mangosteen xanthones relies primarily on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), which enables precise identification and measurement of individual xanthones based on molecular ions and fragmentation patterns [13][22]. High-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) remains a common quality control method for standardized commercial extracts [12]. Recent studies (as of 2024) have used advanced LC-MS techniques to identify additional previously uncharacterized xanthones [29].
For consumers evaluating mangosteen supplements, key quality parameters include: standardization to total xanthone or α-mangostin content per serving, specification of source material (pericarp extract vs. whole fruit), third-party verification of xanthone content, and absence of contaminants.
Evidence for Benefits
Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activity
The xanthone compounds in mangosteen, particularly α-mangostin and γ-mangostin, have demonstrated potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in laboratory studies. These constitute the most extensively studied and best-documented biological activities of mangosteen.
In vitro evidence: Test tube studies have shown that mangosteen xanthones exhibit antioxidant, anti-histamine, anti-serotonin, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective actions — particularly from the rind fraction [16]. The tannin content of the rind also contributes to antioxidant capacity.
Anti-inflammatory mechanisms: γ-Mangostin has been shown to inhibit nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated macrophages with IC50 values of 10.1-12.4 μM, indicating meaningful anti-inflammatory potency at the cellular level (Chen et al., Food Chem Toxicol, 2008) [30]. The mechanism involves suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and COX-2 activity.
NF-κB pathway inhibition: Systematic reviews from 2025 confirm that mangosteen extracts and xanthones consistently lower oxidative stress markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines across in vitro and in vivo models, with NF-κB pathway inhibition identified as a key molecular mechanism [31][32]. Specific downstream effects include reduced expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and other pro-inflammatory mediators.
ORAC measurement: The fruit's antioxidant capacity has been measured by Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) at approximately 2,510 μmol Trolox equivalents per 100 g [33]. However, the USDA discontinued the ORAC database in 2012 because ORAC values do not reliably predict in vivo antioxidant benefits in the complex human biological system [33].
Clinical translation gap: While the laboratory evidence is consistent and robust, it has not been convincingly replicated in human clinical trials measuring meaningful health endpoints. Antioxidant activity in a test tube does not automatically translate to health benefits when consumed orally, due to bioavailability limitations and the complexity of endogenous human antioxidant defense systems.
Antimicrobial Activity
Tuberculosis: Compounds from mangosteen, particularly α-mangostin, have shown activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in laboratory settings [16]. The mechanism involves disruption of bacterial cell membrane integrity by the prenylated xanthone structures.
Broad-spectrum antibacterial effects: Mangosteen rind extracts have demonstrated antibacterial effects against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms in vitro, including activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [14][17].
Oral health (clinical study): One clinical study evaluated a mouthwash containing mangosteen fruit rind extract, used twice daily, in a group of 60 people with gingivitis (Rassameemasmaung et al., J Int Acad Periodontol, 2007) [34]. The mangosteen mouthwash was no different from placebo for improving gum health (gingivitis scores), but was superior to placebo for reducing halitosis (bad breath). This represents one of the few clinical evaluations of mangosteen's antimicrobial properties in humans, and the results were mixed.
Skin Health
Acne (clinical evidence): A 2019 randomized, double-blind study evaluated 0.5% topical mangosteen extract for acne treatment. The study demonstrated preliminary benefits in reducing acne lesions and inflammation through antibacterial and antioxidant effects, though the overall efficacy was characterized as moderate and investigators concluded that larger-scale trials are needed [19]. As of 2025, additional formulations including hydrogel patches containing mangosteen extract have continued to show potential in small studies [20].
Facial skin texture: One study found that using a face cream containing extracts of mangosteen, green and white teas, and pomegranate twice daily for two months improved facial skin texture in 20 women with wrinkles (Chiu et al., J Cosmet Dermatol, 2018) [16][36]. However, the cream contained multiple active ingredients (making it impossible to attribute effects specifically to mangosteen), the sample size was very small (n=20), and the duration was short (2 months).
Wound healing (preclinical): The bark of the mangosteen tree has been applied topically in traditional folk remedies for wound healing [17]. Modern research has investigated alginate-based wound dressings containing mangosteen extract, with preclinical studies suggesting enhanced wound healing and antioxidant activity at the wound site [37].
Skin-brightening and anti-aging: The fruit's pericarp extracts are increasingly incorporated into cosmetic products marketed for skin-brightening and anti-aging effects [4][35]. However, clinical evidence specifically supporting these claims from well-designed trials is lacking.
Anticancer Activity (Preclinical Only)
Laboratory studies have shown that mangosteen xanthones possess cytotoxic activity against isolated cancer cell lines. This is one of the most active areas of mangosteen research, but it remains entirely preclinical.
Cell line studies: Xanthones from mangosteen have shown activity against leukemia, breast cancer (MDA-MB-231 cells), prostate cancer (PC-3 cells), colon cancer, and liver cancer cells in test tube models [16][38]. Mechanisms include induction of apoptosis via caspase activation, cell cycle arrest at G1 or G2/M phases, inhibition of cell migration and invasion, downregulation of NF-κB and PI3K/Akt survival signaling pathways, and anti-angiogenic effects (Shan et al., Curr Mol Med, 2011) [15][38].
Critical limitations: Activity against isolated cancer cells in a laboratory setting does not indicate efficacy against cancer in humans. Many compounds that kill cancer cells in test tubes fail completely in clinical trials due to insufficient bioavailability, systemic toxicity, and the complex tumor microenvironment. No clinical trials have demonstrated anticancer efficacy of mangosteen or its xanthones in humans. Claims that mangosteen prevents or treats cancer are not supported by clinical evidence.
Diabetes and Blood Sugar (Preclinical)
Animal models: Mangosteen pericarp extracts significantly reduced blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by enhancing insulin sensitivity and improving pancreatic beta cell function [39]. Proposed mechanisms include protection of pancreatic beta cells from oxidative damage and enhancement of insulin signaling pathways.
Alpha-glucosidase inhibition: Mangosteen xanthones have shown alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity in laboratory assays, suggesting a potential mechanism for slowing carbohydrate digestion and reducing postprandial glucose spikes [14][39].
AMPK activation: Some preclinical studies suggest that α-mangostin activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a key metabolic sensor that promotes glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation — a mechanism that overlaps with metformin [14].
Clinical evidence: Human clinical data on mangosteen for diabetes or blood sugar management is essentially absent. The preclinical findings require translation through human trials before any conclusions about efficacy can be drawn.
Neuroprotection and Alzheimer's Disease (Preclinical)
Recent research has increasingly focused on the neuroprotective potential of mangosteen-derived xanthones, particularly for neurodegenerative diseases.
Garcinone D and Alzheimer's models: A 2025 study published in Scientific Reports demonstrated that garcinone D, a xanthone isolated from mangosteen pericarp, mitigated amyloid-β42-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells [31]. Key findings: reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels by approximately 30-33% at low concentrations (0.1-1.0 μM), restoration of mitochondrial membrane potential by up to 193% compared to amyloid-β-treated controls, and activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway to enhance endogenous antioxidant defenses.
Systematic reviews (2025): Two complementary systematic reviews published in 2025 confirmed that mangosteen extracts and xanthones consistently lower oxidative stress markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines (via NF-κB inhibition) across multiple in vitro and in vivo neurodegeneration models [31][32]. The reviewers characterized mangosteen xanthones as "promising candidates for anti-Alzheimer's therapies" while explicitly noting that clinical trials in humans are essential.
Blood-brain barrier: A key unanswered question is whether mangosteen xanthones can cross the blood-brain barrier at sufficient concentrations following oral administration. The lipophilic nature of prenylated xanthones theoretically favors CNS penetration, but this has not been confirmed in human pharmacokinetic studies.
Obesity and Weight Management (Preclinical)
α-Mangostin has been studied for effects on adipogenesis, lipid metabolism, and adipocyte function in cell culture models. Reported mechanisms include inhibition of fatty acid synthase activity, modulation of AMPK signaling, and suppression of adipogenic transcription factor expression (PPARγ, C/EBPα) [14]. Some rodent studies have reported reductions in body weight gain and adipose tissue accumulation, but no clinical trials have established efficacy for weight loss or obesity management in humans.
Cardiovascular Effects (Preclinical)
Some preclinical evidence suggests that α-mangostin may influence cholesterol metabolism and improve lipid profiles in hyperlipidemic rodent models [14]. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties have led to investigation of potential anti-atherogenic effects through reduction of oxidative LDL modification and inhibition of inflammatory signaling in vascular endothelial cells [14][15]. No clinical trials have evaluated cardiovascular outcomes with mangosteen supplementation in humans.
Antiviral Activity (Preliminary)
During the COVID-19 pandemic, mangosteen attracted attention due to proposed antiviral effects against SARS-CoV-2. In silico (computational molecular docking) studies examined the interaction of α-mangostin with the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 [40]. However, these claims remain entirely unproven in human studies, with no established clinical benefit for COVID-19 or any other viral infection [41]. Mangosteen xanthones have also shown in vitro activity against HIV, hepatitis C, and influenza viruses, but these findings are preliminary [14].
Summary of Evidence Quality
| Condition/Area | Evidence Level | Key Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Antioxidant/anti-inflammatory | Strong in vitro, consistent | No meaningful human clinical trials |
| Antimicrobial (general) | Moderate in vitro | No human data for systemic infections |
| Oral health (halitosis) | One clinical trial (n=60) | Mixed results; no gum health benefit |
| Skin health (acne, topical) | Preliminary clinical | Small samples, multi-ingredient products |
| Facial skin texture | One clinical trial (n=20) | Multi-ingredient product, cannot attribute to mangosteen |
| Anticancer | In vitro/preclinical only | No human clinical data |
| Diabetes/blood sugar | Preclinical only | No human clinical data |
| Neuroprotection/Alzheimer's | Preclinical, systematically reviewed (2025) | No human clinical data |
| Obesity/weight management | Preclinical only | No human clinical data |
| Cardiovascular | Preclinical only | No human clinical data |
| Antiviral (incl. COVID-19) | In silico/preclinical | No proven clinical benefit |
The overarching theme across all health claims for mangosteen is a substantial gap between impressive laboratory findings and the near-total absence of confirmatory human clinical trials.
Recommended Dosing
No Established Therapeutic Dose
Unlike well-studied supplements such as magnesium, omega-3 fatty acids, or vitamin D, there is no established Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), or clinically validated therapeutic dose for mangosteen or its xanthone components. The evidence base does not currently support specific dosing recommendations for any health condition.
Doses Used in Available Research
Pericarp extract (oral supplements): Typical dosages in supplemental form range from 200 to 400 mg per day of mangosteen pericarp extract, often divided into two doses, based on studies evaluating safety and bioactivity rather than confirmed therapeutic efficacy [41]. Some products market higher doses (up to 500-1,000 mg/day), but clinical evidence supporting these higher doses is absent.
Topical preparations: Clinical studies for acne have used 0.5% mangosteen extract in topical formulations [19]. Cosmetic products typically contain 0.5-2% extract.
Mangosteen juice: Commercial products vary widely in xanthone content depending on the proportion of rind included. One cup provides approximately 140-170 calories, with the vast majority from sugar [16]. The caloric and sugar contribution should be factored into dietary planning, particularly for individuals with diabetes or those on calorie-restricted diets.
Standardization Considerations
When evaluating mangosteen supplements, look for: total xanthone content per serving, α-mangostin content per serving, source material (pericarp extract vs. whole fruit), extraction method (ethanol and acetone yield higher xanthone recovery), and third-party testing verification.
Timing and Administration
No evidence-based guidance exists for optimal timing. General principles for polyphenol supplements suggest taking with food may improve tolerance and potentially improve absorption of lipophilic compounds, and splitting the daily dose into two servings may provide more consistent plasma levels — though these recommendations are extrapolated from general polyphenol pharmacology, not mangosteen-specific studies.
Safety and Side Effects
General Safety
Mangosteen fruit (the edible aril) is generally considered safe as a food [16]. It has been consumed widely throughout Southeast Asia for centuries with no systematic safety concerns reported. However, little is known about the safety of mangosteen root, bark, leaves, and fruit rind when consumed as concentrated supplements or extracts [16]. The safety profile of long-term supplementation with concentrated pericarp extracts has not been established in clinical trials.
Lactic Acidosis Risk
Excessive amounts or long-term use of mangosteen juice might cause lactic acidosis — a serious and potentially life-threatening metabolic condition. One case report documented lactic acidosis in a man who consumed mangosteen juice daily for more than one year, with the condition unexplained after thorough medical evaluation (Wong & Klemmer, Am J Kidney Dis, 2008) [42][16]. Symptoms of lactic acidosis include deep and rapid breathing (Kussmaul breathing), vomiting, abdominal pain, confusion, and cardiovascular instability.
While a single case report does not establish causation, it raises a legitimate concern about chronic high-dose consumption — particularly because the mechanism by which mangosteen components might cause lactic acidosis has not been elucidated.
Common Side Effects
Side effects with mangosteen supplements at typical doses (200-400 mg/day) are reported as rare but may include [41][43]: mild gastrointestinal upset (nausea, bloating, abdominal discomfort), with symptoms more common at higher doses; potential allergic reactions in sensitive individuals (rare); and occasional constipation.
Caloric and Sugar Content
Mangosteen juice provides approximately 140-170 calories per cup, with the vast majority from sugar [16]. This is comparable to other fruit juices and should be factored into dietary planning, particularly for individuals with diabetes, prediabetes, or those monitoring caloric intake.
Regulatory Status
In the United States, mangosteen fruit is recognized as safe for use as a food ingredient under FDA GRAS guidelines. Mangosteen extracts marketed as dietary supplements are not approved as drugs and cannot legally make therapeutic claims [41]. Fresh mangosteen importation to the US was restricted until 2007 due to fruit fly concerns; imports are now permitted with irradiation or vapor heat treatment [44].
Special Populations
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding: Insufficient safety data for supplements. Fresh fruit in normal quantities is likely safe based on historical use, but concentrated pericarp extracts should be avoided.
- Children: Safety of supplements not established. Fresh fruit in age-appropriate portions is not a concern.
- Liver disease: Exercise caution, as hepatic metabolism of xanthone compounds in these populations has not been studied.
- Kidney disease: Exercise caution. The lactic acidosis case report occurred in a patient with subsequent renal involvement.
- Surgery: Consider discontinuing supplements at least 2 weeks before scheduled surgery due to theoretical antiplatelet effects suggested in preclinical studies.
Drug Interactions
Formal drug interaction studies for mangosteen in humans are essentially absent. The following potential interactions are based on preclinical research and theoretical pharmacological considerations. The clinical significance at typical supplement doses is unknown.
Potential Interactions
| Drug/Drug Class | Potential Interaction | Evidence Basis |
|---|---|---|
| Anticoagulants/antiplatelets (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel) | Possible increased bleeding risk | In vitro antiplatelet activity of xanthones |
| Antidiabetic medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, insulin) | Potential additive hypoglycemic effect | Preclinical blood glucose-lowering activity |
| Chemotherapy agents | Theoretical enhancement or interference | In vitro cytotoxicity, P-glycoprotein modulation |
| CYP3A4 substrates (statins, Ca-channel blockers, benzodiazepines, immunosuppressants) | Possible increased drug levels | In vitro CYP3A4 inhibition by α-mangostin [26] |
| CYP1A2 substrates (caffeine, theophylline, clozapine) | Possible increased drug levels | In vitro CYP1A2 inhibition |
| Sedatives and CNS depressants | Possible additive sedation | Limited preclinical CNS-depressant properties |
| P-glycoprotein substrates (digoxin) | Possible altered drug absorption/efflux | In vitro P-glycoprotein modulation [14] |
CYP450 Enzyme Interactions
In vitro studies have shown that α-mangostin may inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes, particularly CYP3A4 (which metabolizes approximately 50% of all clinically used drugs) and CYP1A2 [26]. If these effects translate to humans at typical supplement doses, mangosteen supplements could potentially increase blood levels of drugs metabolized by these enzymes, including statins (increasing myopathy risk), calcium channel blockers, benzodiazepines, immunosuppressants (cyclosporine, tacrolimus), and HIV protease inhibitors. Whether achievable in vivo concentrations are sufficient for clinically meaningful CYP inhibition remains unknown.
Practical Guidance
Given the limited formal interaction data: consult a healthcare provider before starting mangosteen supplements if taking any prescription medications (particularly those with narrow therapeutic indices); avoid concurrent use with anticoagulants until more data is available; monitor blood glucose if combining with antidiabetic medications; and discontinue 2 weeks before surgery as a precautionary measure.
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Get Your Personalized Health PlanDietary Sources
Nutritional Profile of Fresh Mangosteen Fruit
The edible aril of mangosteen provides a modest nutritional profile [45]:
| Nutrient (per 100 g aril) | Amount | % Daily Value |
|---|---|---|
| Water | 81 g | — |
| Energy | 73 kcal | 4% |
| Carbohydrates | 17.9 g | 6% |
| — Sugars | 16 g | — |
| Dietary fiber | 1.8 g | 6% |
| Protein | 0.4 g | 1% |
| Fat | 0.6 g | 1% |
| Vitamin C | 2.9 mg | 3% |
| Thiamine (B1) | 0.05 mg | 4% |
| Potassium | 48 mg | 1% |
| Manganese | 0.1 mg | 4% |
Source: USDA FoodData Central [45]. Mangosteen is a low-calorie, hydrating fruit with moderate carbohydrate content. It provides modest vitamin C (2.9 mg/100 g, 3-5% DV), thiamine, potassium, and manganese but is not a rich source of any single micronutrient [45]. Its nutritional profile is comparable to lychee but features slightly higher dietary fiber.
Glycemic Index
Mangosteen has a low-to-moderate glycemic index of approximately 58, positioning it as a reasonable fruit choice for individuals managing blood sugar levels [46]. For comparison: watermelon GI 72, banana 51, apple 36.
Availability and Seasonality
Fresh mangosteen is primarily available from June to September in international markets, coinciding with the Southeast Asian rainy season harvest [8]. In Southeast Asia, wholesale prices range from $2.33-$10.79 per kg. In the US and EU, retail prices typically range from $14.50-$30 per kg, with seasonal fluctuations of up to 50% [8]. Fresh US imports were permitted from 2007 following implementation of irradiation requirements [44]. Canned mangosteen is available year-round but the delicate aril texture degrades during heat treatment [49]. Frozen mangosteen maintains better texture and is increasingly available.
Culinary Uses
- Fresh dessert fruit: The most common preparation — rind peeled to reveal white aril segments. Chilling intensifies sweetness [21][50].
- Thai salads: In yum mangkut, the aril is combined with shrimp, lime, chili, and herbs [51].
- Juices and smoothies: Aril blended with water and sugar (1:1 ratio); dried powder added to smoothies [21][50].
- Preserves and jams: Aril simmered with sugar and pectin [52].
- Tea: Dried rind brewed, producing an earthy infusion — a traditional Indonesian preparation [21].
- Vinegar: In Indonesia, fermented mangosteen products used in marinades [53].
- Functional foods: Pericarp extract added to ice cream (up to 2%) for antioxidant content [54].
- Fusion cuisine: Paired with chocolate, layered with yogurt in parfaits; seasonally available June-September in international markets [55].
Nutrient Variability
Nutritional and phytochemical content varies by growing region, cultivar, maturity stage, and processing [29]. Unripe green fruit has higher acidity (0.77% as citric acid) compared to ripe fruit (0.73%), with the decrease improving palatability [47].
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19. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Medicinal Applications. 2019 randomized double-blind acne study. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
20. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Medicinal Applications. 2025 hydrogel patch formulations. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
21. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
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23. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Other Applications. Leaves as fodder additives. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
24. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Other Applications. Seeds as biofuel source. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
25. Pothitirat W, Gritsanapan W. Effects of drying methods on assay and antioxidant activity of xanthones in mangosteen pericarp. Maejo Int J Sci Technol. 2008;2(3):420-430.
26. Li L, Brunner I, Han AR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of α-mangostin in rats. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011;55(Suppl 1):S67-S74. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201000511
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32. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Recent Research. Systematic review of neuroprotective effects (2025). https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
33. USDA. ORAC of Selected Foods, Release 2 (2010). Discontinued 2012.
34. Rassameemasmaung S et al. Effects of herbal mouthwash containing mangosteen rind extract. J Int Acad Periodontol. 2007;9(1):19-25.
35. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Other Applications. Cosmetic soaps with pericarp xanthones. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
36. Chiu HF et al. Improvement of facial skin quality with mangosteen, green tea, white tea, and pomegranate cream. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018.
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41. Drugs.com. Mangosteen Uses, Benefits & Dosage. https://www.drugs.com/npc/mangosteen.html. See also: WebMD Mangosteen; Grokipedia Medicinal Applications — FDA GRAS, COVID-19.
42. Wong LP, Klemmer PJ. Severe lactic acidosis associated with juice of the mangosteen fruit. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008;51(5):829-833. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.12.043
43. ConsumerLab. Mangosteen — Concerns and Cautions. https://www.consumerlab.com/reviews/mangosteen-juice-supplement/mangosteen/
44. USDA-APHIS. Revision of Fruits and Vegetables Import Regulations. Federal Register, 2007.
45. USDA FoodData Central. Mangosteen. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
46. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Nutritional Composition. Glycemic index. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
47. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Nutritional Composition. Maturity variation. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
48. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Historical Spread and Cultivation. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
49. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Canning limitations. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
50. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Fresh consumption. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
51. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Thai salad yum mangkut. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
52. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Preserves. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
53. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Vinegar. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
54. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Functional ice cream. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
55. Grokipedia. Mangosteen — Culinary Applications. Fusion cuisine, seasonal availability. https://grokipedia.com/page/Mangosteen
